Sunday, January 26, 2020

Examining Prison And Its Alternative Institutions Criminology Essay

Examining Prison And Its Alternative Institutions Criminology Essay Prisons systems around the world have been pursuing an expansionist course for decades. There are more than 9.8 million people held in penal institutions around the world (Walmsley, 2008). Prison systems are having an increasingly difficult time dealing with the number of offenders that are sentenced to imprisonment as evident in the overcrowded living conditions and understaffed institutions. At a time when public expenditure is under pressure, governments are faced with the daunting task of finding funding to build new prisons and manage existing ones. Not surprisingly, prison is increasingly becoming regarded as a scarce and expensive resource. Some theorists have argued that there prisons should be abolished altogether given that they do not fulfil the justifications for punishment. Other theorists have contended that prisons are the only solution for the most serious crime but they are used much too often and for minor offences. The term reductionist refers to significant reductions in prison population size (Rutherford, 1984). While there have been recent increases in the incarceration rate in Scandinavia and the Netherlands, they have traditionally been regarded as successful examples of a reductionist policy. This essay will argue, not for the abolition of prisons, but for a drastic reduction in their use by using strategies proposed by Rutherford (1984) applied universally. Strategies to reduce the use of prison should start with the prison itself and substantially reduce the capacity of the prison so that prison is a scarce resource. Only then will alternatives to prison be used instead of prison and not in addition to prison. America has the highest incarceration rate in the world at 748 per 100,000 of the population (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2009). There are approximately 2,297,400 people held in state and federal prisons and local jails throughout the U.S Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2009). This is almost a quarter of the worlds prisoners and yet America is home to less than five-percent of the worlds population (Adam Liptak, 2008). The state of California houses around 171,275 prisoners which is more than any other U.S state Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2009). California is a prime example of the countrys growing prison population and the unsustainable prison costs. In California alone, the prison system costs the government $10 billion a year (Trachtenberg, 2009). By 2012, the government will be spending more money on its prison system than its university system (Trachtenberg, 2009). The construction of new prisons has not reduced the unprecedented level of overcrowding or improved conditions in California prisons. There are 33 adult prisons in California and each prison is holding many more inmates than it was intended for (Specter, 2010). Some are reaching 300% of their capacity. The extreme overcrowding has meant that prison gymnasiums, hallways and cafeterias are being used to house inmates, and in some cases the inmates are triple-bunked (Specter, 2010). The inmates sleep in close confinement with one another, and there is nothing that protects them from being sexually and physically abused by fellow inmates. The crowded and unhygienic conditions, mean inmates are more likely to get sick, stay sick, and pass illnesses onto others. Prison overcrowding is directly related to the inhumane conditions that prisoners live in inside many of the worlds prisons. England and Wales also have a high prison population rate of 153 per 100,000 of the national population. Although the prison population rate in England and Wales is much lower than in America, many countries have rates of below 150 per 100,000. There are 83,392 people in prison in England and Wales and new and existing resources will need to accommodate a planned prison population of 96,000 by 2014 at an enormous cost (Walmsley, 2008; House of Commons, 2010). Recent research shows that prison expenditure in England and Wales increased dramatically between 2003 and 2009 from  £2.868 billion to  £3.982 billion respectively (Centre for Crime and Justice Studies, 2010). A large number of prisoners are sharing cells that were only intended for single use (Millie, Jacobsen Hough, 2003). If this forecast is realised then England and Wales will have the highest imprisonment rate in Western Europe at 169.1 per 100,000 people (House of Commons, 2010). The public expenditure is under great pressure in England and Wales and the government needs to decide if it will continue with its prison building programme or invest in the prevention of crime (House of Commons Justice Committee, 2009). Overcrowded prisons like in America and England and Wales are a symptom of the expansionist movement. The prison population rates are likely to increase annually and because it takes years to bring a new prison into commission the existing prisons are filled over and above their capacity (Rutherford, 1984). To deal with the expected increase in the prison population rate expansionist systems tend to have prison-building programmes in place to increase the size of their existing prisons and build new ones (Rutherford, 1984). Rutherford (1988) argues that serious overcrowding can attract political attention and lead to closer inspection of the prison system. In California, attention has been drawn to the state of Californias prisons by the various lawsuits that have been filed against the governor and corrections officials by prisoners. In the case of Plata v. Davis in 2002, the state acknowledged that it had not been providing adequate medical care to meet the needs of prisoners throu ghout the prison system (Specter, 2010). Based on this and other cases, a court was set up to address Californias prison crisis which concluded that overcrowding in the prisons prevented the state of California from providing adequate mental and medical health care to its prisoners (Specter, 2010). Following the investigation, the court imposed a population cap of 137.5% of the prisons capacity (Specter, 2010). According to Rutherford (1984), these types of orders can have several types of consequences. First, prison overcrowding can initiate a reductionist movement. Policy makers could be encouraged to make use of early release mechanisms or set-up more community-based punishments. For example, in California the state has launched a programme to trial shortening the period of time that parolees remain under intensive supervision which can last for years following their release from prison (Muradyan, 2008). The strict parole conditions mean that offenders are often returned to prison for parole violations such as missing their appointments (Muradyan, 2008). If minor-offenders are able to stay clean for six-months after their release from prison then their supervision will end early (Muradyan, 2008). In England and Wales, a report on the overcrowding of prisons strongly recommends that the government reinvest in community based sanctions for prisoners who are only sentenced to prison for a short time to reduce the prison population and reduce re-offending (House of Commons Justice Co mmittee, 2009). Second, prison overcrowding can encourage officials to make use of prison facilities in neighbouring jurisdictions (Rutherford, 1984). When the court imposed a population cap on Californias prisons the state began to transfer around 8,000 of its prisoners to facilities outside of California. This solution only succeeds in shifting the problem of overcrowding elsewhere and as we will see in the case of California, it is a short-term solution to a larger problem. The authorization to transfer Californias inmates to facilities in other states expires in July of 2011 (Muradyan, 2008). Third, overcrowding can contribute to the expansion of prison systems. When resources are stretched it can help to secure more resources for the expansion of existing prisons and the creation of new ones (Rutherford, 1984). In response to the prison crisis in California, the state borrowed $7.4 billion make room for 40,000 more prisoners in state prisons and to create 13,000 new county jail beds (Muradyan, 2008). This was a controversial move because the government obtained the financing through lease-bonding, a move that saves the state from having to gain voter approval and costs more than other types of bonds (Muradyan, 2008). It is clear from this example that there is big money involved in the expansion of prison systems. Most prisons are built with borrowed money like in California. The funding for prisons can produce big profits for the private companies that are involved in prison systems throughout the world in one way or another (Christie, 1994). Health care, food services and construction are all sectors that are expanding fast and providing big profits for private firms (Christie, 1994). Private sector involvement can also be seen in the private-prison itself. In his book, Crime Control as a Product (1994), Nils Christie raises the important point that with this amount of interplay with private profit interests, even up to the level of private prisons, we are building an important growth factor into the system (pg. 111). The profits associated with private prisons mean big money for private companies who are able to build and run prisons for a fraction of what it costs the government and the gover nment is able to avoid asking the voters permission to build a new prison (Christie, 1994). Christie warns that an expansionist policy will lead to private prisons and in turn, a focus on financial rather than humanitarian aims. Although Governments have been geared towards expansion for decades, a large number are becoming increasingly aware that prison is a scarce resource that is too expensive to maintain. In some countries, this perception is based on the understanding that prison is not fulfilling its key aims of punishment. Perhaps other countries are not comfortable using the restriction of liberty as the main form of punishment. But for a lot of countries, it would seem that a reductionist policy makes more sense than an expansionist one in economic terms. For example, in the Netherlands the judiciary believe that prison is ineffective as a punishment and should be used as a last resort (Downes, 1988; 81). The Netherlands has maintained a low prison population in the post-war period, a time when other prison populations have sky-rocketed. This is likely due to the short length of sentences compared with countries like America (Downes, 1982). There are a number of factors that are likely to have helped to maintain a certain level of penal capacity in the Netherlands. First, penal sentencing and criminal justice policy in The Netherlands has traditionally enjoyed a culture of tolerance. The culture of tolerance lead to less prejudice, less discrimination, and reduced the need for harsh punishment (Downes, 1988). A glance at the history of the Netherlands illustrates the long tradition of Dutch tolerance towards minority groups, deviants, and religious beliefs and points of view that strayed from the norm. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries The Netherlands was less inclined to use capital and corporal punishment than its European counterparts and notably fewer wartime collaborators were killed after the war compared with countries such as Belgium and France (Downes, 1988). Second, the culture of tolerance in The Netherlands was allowed to operate in the setting of a politics of accommodation. Criminal justice policy, for the most part, operated out of the public eye and was free from public opinion. Criminal justice policy was largely determined by a small group of professional elites who made accommodations with other smaller groups to support tolerant policies. A range of different groups, even those that supported abolitionism, were a part of the penal reform. Although criminologists with extreme views such as Bianchi, would have been excluded from advisory roles in England and Wales or the United States, in The Netherlands radical views on criminal justice are welcomed and the participation of elites with such views serves to lead debates in a direction that would not have been considered otherwise. The criminal justice process also remained free from unnecessary public interaction. The criminal justice system was run by a small number of highly pr ofessional and well educated practitioners. Other theories assert that a combination of social developments contributed to the sentencing trends in the Netherlands. There are five major social developments that may have impacted on the situation; the comprehensive range of social services, a large number of youth centres, a large number of client-oriented welfare and social-service agencies, responsible reporting by the mass media, and the pressure group activities on behalf of the penal reform by the social service agencies (Hulsman, as cited in Downes, 1988; 344). Another factor could be that many Dutch people were imprisoned during the War and that this made the Dutch less inclined to administer sentences of imprisonment as they understood the pains that imprisonment can cause (Downes, 1988). Downes (1988) argues that these factors occurred alongside the sentencing trends but that they did not necessarily influence the trends. The trends in the sentencing policy of the Netherlands have remained rather constant. The mild reactions of the Dutch to crime and the co-operation of political parties made it easier for a small group of elites to implement criminal justice policies free from public opinion. welfare However, maintaining such a stable prison population would not have been possible without the co-operation of the judges. The legal training which places a negative value on imprisonment seems to be important in maintaining the use of imprisonment as a last resort. The reductionist policy was not peculiar to The Netherlands at this time. Scandinavian countries have also enjoyed low levels of imprisonment and humane prison conditions. Although the levels of imprisonment in Scandinavia are also on the rise, the rate of 66 per 100,000 of the population is still significantly lower than many countries around the world (Pratt, 2008; Walmsley, 2008). Pratt (2008) attributes the low prison population rates and humane prison conditions to a culture of equality and generous welfare state. The Scandinavian welfare state provided support for anybody that needs it. There were no limits to who could apply for assistance and no shame involved in asking for it (Pratt, 2008). The people of Scandinavia afforded the state a large amount of power and paid high taxes in exchange for high levels of security. The state provided security for its people by guaranteeing work and unemployment benefits, social services (medical care, care for the elderly, and improved li ving conditions for its citizens (Pratt, 2008). Peoples individual interests were secondary to shared common and political goals (Pratt, 2008). In Scandinavia, there was a generally held belief that a strong welfare state could reduce the problem of crime the way it had reduced other social problems (Pratt, 2008). Crime was viewed as an illness that could be treated like any other illness and so the rehabilitation of offenders was an important part of the criminal justice process (Pratt, 2008). The job of the criminal justice system was to treat offenders and then reintegrate offenders back into the community. While in prison, offenders were treated humanely and there was no need for further degradation because the loss of liberty was the punishment (Pratt, 2008). Furthermore, the social solidarity in Scandinavia meant that offenders were not seen as a dangerous class, merely as another group of welfare recipients (Pratt, 2008). The Scandinavian public seem to be an exception to the increasingly punitive attitudes and policy towards offenders that exists in many countries around the world. Although the support for the rehabilitation of offenders is on the decline, while the use of sentencing and the length of sentences is increasing they are still more inclined than their European counterparts to believe that prevention programmes can reduce crime (Demker, Towns, Duus-Otterstrà ¶m Sebring, 2008. In addition, less than half of the Swedish public still believe that tougher jail sentences can reduce crime (Demker et al., 2008). The Netherlands and Scandinavia demonstrate that prison populations can be reduced and sustained at low levels. Some general themes have emerged: the criminal justice policies are expert and research driven; the criminal justice system is not influenced by public opinion or political motives; a strong welfare state. Perhaps the most important conditions for a successful reductionist approach are a questioning of the prison system and the purposes it serves and an understanding that the prison population is less to do with the amount of crime that occurs than the response to crime by the criminal justice system (Rutherford, 1984). According to Rutherford (1984) the reductionist policy can be applied more universally. Before looking at the ways Rutherford (1984) has proposed to reduce the prison population it is important to acknowledge that the items on the agenda need political support. Politicians need to acknowledge that there are alternatives to prison available, as demonstrated in Scandinavia and the Netherlands. Instead of forecasting an increase in the number of people in prison, new low targets should be set. In addition, there must be a desire to push forward with the reductionist agenda even during hard times (Rutherford, 1984). Rutherford (1984) acknowledges that the ideological concerns of officials within the criminal justice system significantly influence the policies and procedures that are made. In many countries, there is a political consensus that an approach to crime and criminality should be tough. For example, in England and Wales, the prison system has expanded under both the Labour and Conservative governments. Both Labour and Conservative governments seems to ascribe to the Great Expectations  [1]  ideology as illustrated by their investment in the prison system. To gain political support for the reductionist agenda, people must be made not to like the great expectations approach so that it loses its vote-winning potential. Before any items on the reductionist agenda can be introduced there is a lot of work that will need to be done. Rutherford (1984) proposes nine ways to reduce the prison population according to the reductionist approach (Rutherford, 1984). They are as follows: The physical capacity of the prison system should be substantially reduced. There should be a precise statement of minimum standards as to the physical conditions of imprisonment and these should be legally enforceable. The optimal prison system staff-to-prisoner ratio should be determined and implemented. The prison system should have at its disposal early release mechanisms and use these to avoid overcrowding. Certain categories of persons sentenced to imprisonment should, if the space be not immediately available, wait until called-up by the prison system. Sentencing discretion should be structured towards use of the least restrictive sanction. Breach or default of non-custodial sanctions should only exceptionally be dealt with by imprisonment. The range of non-imprisonable offences should be widened to include certain categories of theft. The scope of the criminal law should be considerably narrowed (Rutherford, 1984: p. 175-176) To control overcrowding, Rutherford (1984) encourages the use of early release mechanisms. Parole as a form of early release can play a major part in determining sentence length and the size of the prison population. Parole is already being used in places like Australia, United Kingdom, Canada, and New Zealand (Ministry of Justice, 2010). Generally speaking, parole is the release of an offender on the grounds that they adhere to conditions decided upon prior to their release and that these conditions are in effect until the full term of their sentence is up. Narrowing the scope of the criminal law and widening the range of non-imprisonable offences is important because the majority of people in prison are not serious offenders, they are people who have committed minor crimes or created a social nuisance (Rutherford, 1984). Rutherford (1984) argues that as long as prison is used instead of providing welfare to these people, governments will not try to find more effective ways of dealing with this behaviour. At one point in time, social nuisances such as sleeping on the streets and begging were imprisonable offences. According to Rutherford (1984) certain categories of theft should also be made non-imprisonable. He proposes that: On economic and philosophic grounds, property offences where the amount involved is less than, say  £100, should be non-imprisonable. (Rutherford, 1988: 182). Perhaps the value of the property stolen is not the best way to decide whether an offence is serious or not especially when it is as random and subjective as Rutherford (1984) has suggested. It would make more sense to make all minor thefts non-imprisonable and would also be likely to have a more significant effect on the size of the prison population. An alternative suggestion is decriminalisation. Decriminalisation has the potential to reduce the prison population substantially if it is applied to drug use. In 2000, a report blamed the US drug contol policies for the soaring incarceration rate (Schiraldi, Holman Beatty, 2000). In that same year, nearly a quarter of people imprisoned were imprisoned for a non-violent drug-related offence (Schiraldi, Holman Beatty, 2000). These findings suggest that the decriminalisation of drugs and perhaps other minor non-violent offences could significantly reduce the number of people that enter the criminal justice system. Rutherford (1984) advocates the structuring of sentence discretion towards the use of the least restrictive sanction. To achieve this, Rutherford suggests a commission be set up to determine sentencing guidelines. A sentencing commission would have the difficult task of determining the seriousness of offences. The judiciary are generally given a lot of discretion when it comes to deciding sentences. For sentencing policy to have an impact on the prison population it requires the co-operation of the judiciary. Despite the introduction of non-custodial sentences prison populations have continued to rise. This raises doubts about whether non-custodial sentences are being used in the ways that they were intended. In some cases non-custodial sentences are used in addition to imprisonment or in instances where a custodial sentence would not have been handed down in the first place (Rutherford, 1984). Another concern is that strict conditions often accompany alternative sanctions. If the strict conditions are breached then the person can end up in prison anyway. An example of this is the suspended prison sentence which was introduced into English law in 1967 (Bottoms, 1981). The suspended prison sentence was supposed to be used instead of a prison sentence but it was largely used in cases where a fine or probation would have been previously handed out (Bottoms, 1981). Only about half of the people who received the suspended prison sentence would have actually been sentenced to prison if it were not for the suspended sentence (Bottoms, 1981). In addition, judges began to hand out longer sentences to people that received the suspended sentence than they would have if the same person was actually sentenced to prison (Bottoms, 1981). These figures provided a strong argument for the removal of the use of the suspended sentence in England. However, the suspended sentence was implemented in Japan and the Netherlands more successfully. An important difference is that in Japan and the Netherlands, a breach of the suspended sentence does not result in imprisonment (Rutherford, 1984). Rutherford (1984) suggests that this difference might explain why the suspended sentence has contributed to the prison population in England but not in the Netherlands or Japan. The inherent danger of alternative sanctions is that they will supplement rather than replace sentences of imprisonment. Rutherford (1984) recommends establishing a clear understanding of when the non-custodial sentence should be used and what will happen if further offending occurs while the non-custodial sentence is in place. Failure to pay attention to these important issues can have the unintended consequence, as seen in England, of widening the scope of the criminal justice system. Often, strategies to reduce the prison population focus on decisions at the rear of the criminal justice process that deal with the prosecution stage. It is important to note that the decision of who enters the criminal justice system is largely outside the control of the government (Rutherford, 1984). The police are involved in crime prevention, recording of crime, and investigating crime. They are the gatekeepers of the criminal justice system and are afforded a great deal of discretionary power in deciding who enters the criminal justice system and who does not. In England, the police decide who to stop and search, who is guilty, and who to prosecute (Poyser, 2004). The decisions that they make have a huge impact on prison practice and policy. Perhaps the best way to restrict the reach of the criminal justice system is to significantly reduce the physical capacity of the prison system. There are three main ways to reduce the prison capacity; cease new prison building, phased closing of existing prisons, and refurbish existing prisons. In the Netherlands, prior to 1975, there was a large reduction in the prison population from 6,500 inmates to less than 2,500 inmates. The decrease in prison population size was associated with the closure of sixteen of the countrys prisons. If prison capacity is reduced and no new prisons are built, provided countries do not tolerate overcrowding, prison will be a scarce resource that should be reserved for the most serious crime. A logical extension of the reductionist argument is that prisons should be abolished altogether. Although it may seem a radical idea, a glance at the history of the death penalty tells us that abolition is indeed possible (footnote). This idea has received considerable attention within the field of criminology especially by criminologist Thomas Mathiesen. Over the years, arguments in defence of prisons have focused on claims about the purposes of punishment and prison. According to these arguments the purposes of punishment are: rehabilitation, general prevention, collective and selective incapacitation, and justice (Mathiesen, 2000). Mathiesen addresses each one in turn in his book Prison on Trial (2000). First, Mathiesen (2000) examines recent research on rehabilitation in prisons. The CDATE project is a review of a large number of studies on the rehabilitation of offenders in prison and the effects of interventions on drug use and recidivism (Mathiesen, 2000). The project found that correctional interventions were not effective in reducing recidivism (Mathiesen, 2000). Interestingly, community based sentences such as parole and probation did not do much better at reducing recidivism. Some of the programmes included in the study actually produced more problems. It is worth noting that a number of studies on interventions with an emphasis on developing social skills found positive results (Mathiesen, 2000). However, these studies are few and far between. Rutherford (1984) and Matheisen (2000) both express concern over the use of correctional interventions in the prison context. The kind of ideology that supports the use of prison to rehabilitate offenders ignores the history of resear ch on the topic. Rutherford (1999) is also concerned that rehabilitation is based on the idea that prison works and that offenders can be diagnosed and then treated. Then, Mathiesen (2000) addresses the idea that prison serves the function of general prevention. The effectiveness of prisons in producing enough fear in people to convince them not to commit crimes has been hotly debated in criminology. Mathiesen refers to Richard Wrights (1994) review of studies on deterrence. Wright (1994) concludes that the greater a persons perceived and actual chances of getting caught are, the less likely they are to commit crime (Wright, 1994). This is also true for later crime. Changes in policy that increase the perceived chances of being caught will reduce crime in the short-term but will not have a lasting effect (Wright, 1994). Furthermore, the expected and actual severity of crime has no effect on offending (Wright, 1994). Taken together, these findings provide no evidence of a preventative effect of the severity of punishment. Next, Mathiesen (2000) looks at incarceration. There are two ways that prison can be used as incapacitation; collective incapacitation and selective incapacitation. Collective incapacitation refers to the use of prison to incapacitate offenders based on the seriousness of the crime and to a lesser extent, their prior convictions (Wright, 1994). Selective incapacitation refers to the use of prison to incapacitate certain offenders who continually offend and pose a risk to law-abiding citizens (Wright, 1994). Wright (1994) argues that a small group of chronic offenders are responsible for the majority of crime committed. Although, prisons do not deter the offenders from committing crime, it can atleast incapacitate them and protect society from the crime of the chronics (Wright, 1994: 112). On the other hand, Mathiesen (2000) contends that research provides no support for incapacitation in defence of prisons. Incapacitation does not have a significant effect on the rate of crime nor do es it increase the safety of citizens (Mathiesen, 2000). In a review of the related literature, prison and more specifically incapacitation only had marginal effects on crime (Mathieson, 2000). It is also important to note that even though new generation of criminals will only replace those that are incarcerated and incapacitated. To lock the new chronic offenders away would only serve to swell the prisons more. The idea of selective incapacitation is even more controversial. Selective incapacitation raises methodological, legal, and moral concerns about the accuracy of predictive measures used to estimate the probability of future behaviours. The problem of false positives (people predicted to continually reoffend that do not) is central to these arguments. The number of false positives, from prediction instruments, is still very high (Mathiesen, 2000). If the various instruments were put into practice despite their inaccuracy, they would influence the decision making process in co urt. The chance that a person will re-offend is only one feature that the courts take into account when making their decisions. Courts also need to consider mitigating circumstances, fairness, and history amongst other things. Finally, proponents of the prison system endorse retribution as an ethical and fair goal for prisons. These beliefs date back to the influential writings of Cesare Beccaria (1964) in On crimes and Punishments. Beccaria disagreed with the barbaric and extreme punishments that were so commonly used in 18th century Europe. Retributivists believe that punishment should be proportionate to the crime. In this case, offenders are punished not for rehabilitation, or to prevent them commiting more crimes, but to give them their just desserts. The just desserts model requires that crimes are ranked according to severity, punishments are ranked according to severity, and then the crimes and punishments are matched (Wright, 1994). Ranking punishment

Saturday, January 18, 2020

Managing Price Discounting

A leading website defines Discounts as â€Å"Percentage reduction in the gross price given by a seller to a buyer who pays within a set period of time. Cash discounts are given to shorten the length of time the seller must wait to collect the amount due. Cash discounts are offered to buyers in most industries, including media buyers.A common business phrase for a cash discount is â€Å"2/10, net/30,† meaning that a 2% discount is offered if the amount due is paid within 10 days; otherwise 100% of the amount due is payable in 30 days. For example, if the amount due is $100, the buyer may pay $98 within 10 days or $100 within 30 days.†Discounting is becoming a popular mean to attract the customers. Simon Hathaway, managing director of retail specialist Saatchi & Saatchi X, says discounting has become part of the business model for many retailers, especially those in the furnishing sector. He believes that much of this is driven by retailers taking advantage of consumers' ignorance of the price of many products. ‘If you asked 20 people the price of a pint of milk, you would get 20 different answers,' he says.Mike Watkins, senior manager of retail services at A.C. Nielsen, says the potential rewards of tempting shoppers with discounting are huge. ‘Consumers are hooked on promotions,' he says. ‘On average, about 80% of UK shoppers are looking for price promotions — that's the highest in Europe. Low prices are now expected.' Merchants often advertise various types of price discounts in attempts to affect favorably the price-related evaluations and shopping intentions of consumers.Why does price discounting occur – why is it so prevalent?Kevin Cancy, chairman of Copernicus, a major marketing research and consulting firm found that only 5 to 35 percent of the customers are price sensitive. People with higher income and higher product involvement are ready to pay the price for features, customer service, quality , added conv enience and the brand name. Most companies will adjust their list price and give discounts and allowance for early payment, volume purchases and off-season buying.It is well-accepted fact that short-term promotion leads to an increase in the sales. Although the size of the discount determines absolute or relative prices, an important additional type of consumer behavior relating to the processing of information concerning the size of the discount, per se, may have to be addressed before predictions concerning the impact of size of discount can be made. Besides this there are many other objectives that a firm seeks to achieve with discounts. Some of them are:Keeping up with competition: a sale or a discount offer is likely to be perceived and accepted as a good value when the advertiser is perceived as price competitive (Fry and McDougall, 1974; Biswas and Blair, 1991). Occupying more shelf space in the retail showrooms: Keeping good relations with the dealer often causes discounts. This is more evident in the cases when the dealer is strong. Either he has strong brand value in the region or is a bulk buyer of the product.To promote a new innovationTo clear the decks for new stocks ( change of season/fashion)Price promotions showing tangible increase in SalesAttracting new customers to the brand which may result in increased brand switching.Also, Research has indicated that a sale or a discount offer is likely to be perceived and accepted as a good value when the advertiser is perceived as price competitive. One reason for such effects relating to store price image may be the nature of attributions for the price discount made by the consumers. For example, for a low-price image store, consumers may be more likely to make merchant-related attributions that indicate â€Å"meeting competitors' prices† or â€Å"passing on savings from bulk purchases from manufacturers† than for a high-price image store.Differences may also be observed in product-relat ed attributions between the stores. Because many consumers believe there is a positive relationship between price and product quality (Rao and Monroe, 1989; Lichtenstein and Burton, 1989), a price discount on merchandise at a store that has a low-price image may sometimes be perceived as related to something negative about the products (such as out-of-date models or inferior quality).The key reason often sighted by marketers is that it is done to is done to invite new users to try the product. If these people appreciate the product they may switch to your brand.  Does it work well to achieve the objectives that are typically set for it?Though the prices discounts do spike up the demands temporarily it is very rare cases that it actually spikes the demand in the long run. But there is a negative side to it, like:Long run price promotions make consumers more sensitive in both loyal and non-loyal segments. They also train non-loyal segments to seek price discounts, thereby making the m more sensitive to price promotion (Mela, Gupta and Lehmann, 1997).Discounting can be a useful tool if the company can gain some concessions in return, like an extended contract of bulk order.Short run price discounts also cause the loyal customers towards bulk buying. This means increase in customer inventories and thus may result in the reduction of subsequent buying.Research suggests that the price promotion more often then not is unsuccessful in brand switching. The reasons for that are very evident, perhaps one of them can be the price perception of the customer is set to the discounted price of the product.For a brand positioned as an aspiration brand the discounts can be suicidal. This may lead more people to buy the brand but it may result in the loss of loyal customers who constitute the major chunk of buyers in the normal course.The price discounts works well in a few cases like:Discounts offered in the time of needDiscounts towards the end of season achieve their objecti ve of clearing the decks for the new stocksAre there some objectives it is well suited for and others it is not suited for?There is lots of confusion on the impact of price discounts, Mela, Gupta and Lehmann in their paper â€Å"The long term effects of Promotion and Advertising on consumer brand choice† state that companies like Colgate Palmolive Ralston, P&G have curtailed the price based promotions but there are some like Heinz who continue to adhere to it.In a research M. P. MARTI ´ NEZ-RUIZ, A. MOLLA ´ -DESCALS, M. A. GO ´ MEZ-BORJA & J. L. ROJO-A ´ LVAREZ (May 2006)   found that for The high-priced brands of the storable category that promotional discounts had a bigger impact during the first days of the promotional period, whereas no special pattern was detected in the low-priced brands of this category.There are some places where the discounts are very well suited for like:Discounts to people visiting in lean season at resorts. This brings extends the brand to people who otherwise may not use it.In an attempt to divert competition attention from the innovations. A price discount leads competition to fight the discount and in the mean time you can position your new innovation.Though there is no research evidence to justify these observationsHow can a product manager or a brand manager plan a discounting strategy that does not harm brand value? Some guidelines can be suggested for the retailer to set adequate promotional discounts periods.Objective of Discounts: The Product manager should very clearly announce the objective of the discounts. Generally discounts offered for pumping the sagging sales should be avoided. A clear motive and the time frame to achieve that motive should be clear.Timing of the Discount: Timing of the discounts is very important. A end of season sale may not have that bad an impact on the brand as a sale in the peak season. A grocery store offering a discount in the year of drought is bound to have more loyal cus tomer’s that any other store around the neighborhood.Limit the Duration: In the first place, promotional periods for the high-priced brands of the storable category should not exceed 10 days; otherwise the promotion profitability could be reduced. In addition to this, discount levels should not exceed a certain magnitude, which depends on the considered brand.Add Value Added Services: An even better strategy than discounting your price is to add value to your goods or services – such as free installation, maintenance training, and longer product warranties. For example, â€Å"I can't lower my price but I am going to give you consulting which will save you the same amount of money, had you received the lower price.† As Mr. Kotler explained, there are some companies that are extremely knowledgeable about their customer's business, and able to point out to their customer ways in which they can save money. Baxter, a hospital supplies company, provides a good example of adding value.â€Å"They give credit points to hospitals who buy their products – just like airlines do.† These points can be redeemed for a cash rebate or for consulting days. Baxter has 12 key consulting teams, each with a different focus. One team, for example, will help the hospital improve its information management system while another team will help it better manage its wastes, elaborated Mr. Kotler. As it turns out, the consulting is so useful that the points are better used for consulting days.Avoid Frequent Discounts: Frequent discounts might influence the consumers’ reference price points and so produce a wear out effect.Evaluate other options like bundling instead of price discounts: Bundling leads to repackaging the products along with other products. Even in this case the frequency and duration should be kept in mind.Cited ReferencesM. P. MARTI ´ NEZ-RUIZ, A. MOLLA ´ -DESCALS, M. A. GO ´ MEZ-BORJA & J. L. ROJO-A ´ LVAREZ (May 2006) †˜Assessing the Impact of Temporary Retail Price Discounts Intervals Using SVM Semi-parametric Regression’ Int. Rev. of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research Vol. 16, No. 2, 181 – 197DONALD R. LICHTENSTEIN, ABHIJIT BISWAS, KATHERINE FRACCASTORO   (1994) ‘The Role of Attributions in Consumer Perceptions of Retail Advertisements Promoting Price Discounts’ Marketing Letters 5:2, (1994): 131-140, Kluwer Academic Publishers Carf Mela, Gupta Sunil, Lehmann Donald   (May 1997) ‘The long Term Impact of Promotion and Advertising on Consumer Brand Choice.’ Journal of Marketing Research 34 (May) p248-261 Quilter, James (March 2007) Marketing, p20-20, Kotler Philip (2003), Marketing Management Pearson Education p-489-490

Friday, January 10, 2020

Construction Management

Bonds LaShundra Hines Indiana Wesleyan University Personal Finance BUS 150 Keith Smith July 22, 2009 Construction Management The function of a construction manager is to advise and consult a client or owner concerning the programming and design of a project. This would include cost estimation, coordination of the work schedule , equipment and material deliveries. A concern in the managers advisement and consultation is trade jurisdiction of the various contractors and the activity coordination of the engineers and architect. One of the most important functions of a construction manager is to offer critical analysis as it relates to the design, economics, and constructibility being proposed by the architect while always keeping in mind the initial budget and the ultimate goal of providing the best possible facility. Demographics In the analysis of demographics and its impact on commercial spending, consideration should be given to the cause of Dayton residents who flee to neighboring communities,increasing crime rates. The lack of employment opportunities, and the infiltration of less desirable residents who fail to take proper care of their property, are some reasons for this flight,which robs Dayton City limits of responsible consumers whose spending would otherwise enhance retail development and progress. It is true, that those disadvantaged families who have been victimized by alcohol and substance abuse, economic down turns and criminal activity, need decent residents like anyone else. However; given the current economically depressing conditions, law enforcement, city inspectors and other institutional overseers are obliged to be more diligent in minimizing problems that arise under these circumstances. Urban Retail Strategy Proper use of land based resources dictates that urbanism advocates mixed-use development which combines residential, commercial, cultural, and recreational uses, rather than segregating these uses into separate zones or traditional single-use zoning. This strategy also facilitates the presence of a variety of demographic entities as per age, sex, income, etc. These varied consumers would be available in the area of retail development and would also cancel some concerns of isolated criminal activity. Environmental Concerns Asbestos legal firms advertising to represent victims of asbestos contamination , appear hourly on tv commercials. This fact emphasizes that asbestos is still a dangerous threat to the population at large. It is a carcinogenic with a prolong incubation period (30+) years, that incapacitates the lungs and breathing process by the infiltration of hook-like fibers for which there is no cure. The state of Ohio is reminded of the devastation caused by asbestos in the city of Mansfield. Exposure to construction materials that were manufactures there, consisting of asbestos caused the death of workers and their families. This occurred prior to governmental warnings and regulations of asbestos containing materials; and has resulted in a host of multi- billion dollar class-action law suits. Dayton is likewise, littered with older structures and vacant buildings that present a similar threat and must be dealt with in consideration of any urban renewal strategy. Environmental Considerations Type I and type II environmental research and analysis involves a careful walk-thru grid pattern of the land area to investigate the presence of illegal dumping, oil and chemical leakage, the presence of underground utilities and other buried materials. Various municipal departments and the fire department , should be consulted as to the historical use of a particular parcel. The type II process involves the abatement of such research which include taking bulk samples of hazardous materials for lab analysis and later air samples during and after abatement to determine atmospheric quality. For many decades throughout the country we have seen large segments of the general populace favor suburban residency. This same phenomenon has affected the downtown and inner-city areas of the city of Dayton for many of the same reasons: I- The increase of inner-city crime, home invasions, robbery,drug traffic, drive-by shootings. II- Unhealthy industrial environment : violation of EPA(Environmental Protection Agency). Federal standards pertaining to harmful emissions and chemical contamination, as well as accidents due to violation of OSHA(Occupational Safety and Health Administration) standards. III- Atmospheric pollution and traffic congestion. IV- Relocation of business parks and shopping centers to the outgoing suburbs. In the case of Dayton in particular, the demise of NCR, GM, DHL, HEWITT SON FACTORY, have all contributed to massive unemployment and relocation and displacement of the city's residents. Large National and international retailers and franchises such as Kroger, Wal-mart, McDonald's have traditionally, perceeded their decisions to locate in a metropolitan area, based upon a impact assessment of the location. Such assessment have been based upon most of the considerations that I have just itemized, and include others such as geographical flood and storm histories, traffic patterns, age, income, and educational demographics and statistical analysis. Judging from this itemized list it becomes obvious why Dayton lacks the presence of some of these franchises in certain areas. My target date for completion of the proposed report shall be 60 days maximum or less after contract award. My recommended fee for completing the requirements of the contract is $175,000( one hundred and seventy-five thousand dollars). A lesser amount can be considered by myself as an independent consultant, and in consideration of the city's budget limitations. A schedule for intermediate reports and presentations shall be available on a bi-weekly time-table. Construction Management Bonds LaShundra Hines Indiana Wesleyan University Personal Finance BUS 150 Keith Smith July 22, 2009 Construction Management The function of a construction manager is to advise and consult a client or owner concerning the programming and design of a project. This would include cost estimation, coordination of the work schedule , equipment and material deliveries. A concern in the managers advisement and consultation is trade jurisdiction of the various contractors and the activity coordination of the engineers and architect. One of the most important functions of a construction manager is to offer critical analysis as it relates to the design, economics, and constructibility being proposed by the architect while always keeping in mind the initial budget and the ultimate goal of providing the best possible facility. Demographics In the analysis of demographics and its impact on commercial spending, consideration should be given to the cause of Dayton residents who flee to neighboring communities,increasing crime rates. The lack of employment opportunities, and the infiltration of less desirable residents who fail to take proper care of their property, are some reasons for this flight,which robs Dayton City limits of responsible consumers whose spending would otherwise enhance retail development and progress. It is true, that those disadvantaged families who have been victimized by alcohol and substance abuse, economic down turns and criminal activity, need decent residents like anyone else. However; given the current economically depressing conditions, law enforcement, city inspectors and other institutional overseers are obliged to be more diligent in minimizing problems that arise under these circumstances. Urban Retail Strategy Proper use of land based resources dictates that urbanism advocates mixed-use development which combines residential, commercial, cultural, and recreational uses, rather than segregating these uses into separate zones or traditional single-use zoning. This strategy also facilitates the presence of a variety of demographic entities as per age, sex, income, etc. These varied consumers would be available in the area of retail development and would also cancel some concerns of isolated criminal activity. Environmental Concerns Asbestos legal firms advertising to represent victims of asbestos contamination , appear hourly on tv commercials. This fact emphasizes that asbestos is still a dangerous threat to the population at large. It is a carcinogenic with a prolong incubation period (30+) years, that incapacitates the lungs and breathing process by the infiltration of hook-like fibers for which there is no cure. The state of Ohio is reminded of the devastation caused by asbestos in the city of Mansfield. Exposure to construction materials that were manufactures there, consisting of asbestos caused the death of workers and their families. This occurred prior to governmental warnings and regulations of asbestos containing materials; and has resulted in a host of multi- billion dollar class-action law suits. Dayton is likewise, littered with older structures and vacant buildings that present a similar threat and must be dealt with in consideration of any urban renewal strategy. Environmental Considerations Type I and type II environmental research and analysis involves a careful walk-thru grid pattern of the land area to investigate the presence of illegal dumping, oil and chemical leakage, the presence of underground utilities and other buried materials. Various municipal departments and the fire department , should be consulted as to the historical use of a particular parcel. The type II process involves the abatement of such research which include taking bulk samples of hazardous materials for lab analysis and later air samples during and after abatement to determine atmospheric quality. For many decades throughout the country we have seen large segments of the general populace favor suburban residency. This same phenomenon has affected the downtown and inner-city areas of the city of Dayton for many of the same reasons: I- The increase of inner-city crime, home invasions, robbery,drug traffic, drive-by shootings. II- Unhealthy industrial environment : violation of EPA(Environmental Protection Agency). Federal standards pertaining to harmful emissions and chemical contamination, as well as accidents due to violation of OSHA(Occupational Safety and Health Administration) standards. III- Atmospheric pollution and traffic congestion. IV- Relocation of business parks and shopping centers to the outgoing suburbs. In the case of Dayton in particular, the demise of NCR, GM, DHL, HEWITT SON FACTORY, have all contributed to massive unemployment and relocation and displacement of the city's residents. Large National and international retailers and franchises such as Kroger, Wal-mart, McDonald's have traditionally, perceeded their decisions to locate in a metropolitan area, based upon a impact assessment of the location. Such assessment have been based upon most of the considerations that I have just itemized, and include others such as geographical flood and storm histories, traffic patterns, age, income, and educational demographics and statistical analysis. Judging from this itemized list it becomes obvious why Dayton lacks the presence of some of these franchises in certain areas. My target date for completion of the proposed report shall be 60 days maximum or less after contract award. My recommended fee for completing the requirements of the contract is $175,000( one hundred and seventy-five thousand dollars). A lesser amount can be considered by myself as an independent consultant, and in consideration of the city's budget limitations. A schedule for intermediate reports and presentations shall be available on a bi-weekly time-table.

Thursday, January 2, 2020

Feminist Issues in The Handmaids Tale Essay - 1316 Words

Feminist Issues in The Handmaids Tale The Handmaids Tale, by Margaret Atwood, can be classified as a distopic novel. The Republic of Gilead in The Handmaids Tale is characteristic of a distopia in that it is not intended as a prediction of the future of our society, but rather as a commentary on current social trends. Atwood has created this nation by isolating what she might consider the disturbing aspects of two diametrically opposed factions of our society (namely the religious right and radical feminism) as a theory as to what would happen if these ideals were taken to an extreme. Because she points out similarities in the thoughts and actions of the extreme religious right and certain parts of the feminist movement,†¦show more content†¦This can be seen as an attempt to point out the neo-Victorian aspects of most anti-pornography ideologies. In past times, especially the Victorian era, the idea of protecting women from the varies dangers of society and exploitation has been used as an excuse to keep women f rom working outside of the home, voting, or participating in many other social and political activities. Even today many Islamic women will state that their veils and extremely modest dress are a form of protection from sexual exploitation. Atwood could be trying to show us that although pornography is degrading to women, this is an issue that is far outweighed by the greater issue of freedom of speech or expression, which goes against the many opinions from both the religious right and some extreme feminists. Another issue in which feminist and religious movements can be seen to converge in this novel is in the process of childbirth. To understand why this is significant a short history of childbirth is necessary. In early times all births were natural due to the fact that there were not any alternatives. Even after anesthetics had been regularly used for many medical procedures, however, childbirth was still not considered a situation that required pain relief techniques. This was partially due to the fact that until recently most births were attended by midwives or other women rather than by physicians and were not consideredShow MoreRelatedThe Characters of Women in The Handmaids Tale and The Bell Jar1504 Words   |  7 Pages Women in The Handmaids Tale and The Bell Jar nbsp; Sylvia Plaths renowned autobiographical legend The Bell Jar and Margaret Atwoods fictional masterpiece The handmaids tale are the two emotional feminist stories, which basically involve the womens struggle. Narrated with a touching tone and filled with an intense feminist voice, both novels explore the conflict of their respective protagonists in a male dominated society. In spite of several extraordinary similarities in termsRead MoreFeminism in Top Girls and The Handmaids Tale Essay1635 Words   |  7 PagesBoth Top Girls and The Handmaid’s Tale relate to contemporary political issues and feminism. Top Girls was written by Caryl Churchill, a political feminist playwright, as a response to Thatcher’s election as a first female British Prime Minister. Churchill was a British social feminist in opposition to Thatcherism. Top Girls was regarded as a unique play about the challenges working women face in the contemporary business world and society at large. Churchill once wrote: ‘Playwrights don’t give answersRead MoreSummary Of Feminism In The Handmaids Tale724 Words   |  3 Pagesreligious conservative politics. Writer, Fiona Tolan analyzes Atwood’s work more in depth in â€Å"Feminist Utopias and Questions of Liberty: Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale as Critique of â€Å"second wave feminism†. In this academic journal, Tolan argues that The Handmaid’s Tale is criticism to â€Å"second wave feminism†. She states the Aunts, Serena Joy, and Offred’s mom as examples of second wave feminist who believe transitioning into Gilead is right for women. She criticizes that this is the worldRead MoreFeminism Lost in Margaret Atwood’s A Handmaid’s Tale Essay1527 Words   |  7 PagesIn Margaret Atwood’s A Handmaid’s Tale, the human spirit has evolved to such a point that it cannot be subdued by complacency. Atwood shows Gilead as an extremist state with strong religious connotations. We see the outcome of the reversal of women’s rights and a totalitarian government which is based on reproduction. 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While Atwood’s novel depicts a fictionalRead MoreThe Significance Of Feminism In The Handmaids Tale991 Words   |  4 PagesI agree to a large extent that a writer’s task is to make insignificant things significant. It allows authors to shed light on important, but maybe overlooked, issues plaguing society and make the reader appreciate what we originally took for granted. This is evident through Margaret Atwood’s novel The Handmaid’s Tale, a work of speculative fiction that depicts a dystopian future world called Gilead. In this novel, Atwood does a great job of highlighting the significance of feminism or specificallyRead MoreFrida Kahlo Feminist Theory Essay1267 Words   |  6 PagesThe feminist theory has been most commonly found throughout literature, as writers express their deepest concerns and criticisms. However, the feminist theory can be found in other mediums: art, journalism, and music. 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